Перевод реалий

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INTRODUCTION

This course work is devoted to the ways of translation of realities in the artistic texts. One of the most important problems the translator has to face in the process of translation of the artistic text is that some of its elements have no coincidence in the target language. First of all, they are objects of non-equivalent lexis and realities of the source language. Some researchers, such as famous Bulgarian translation scholars S. Vlakhov and S. Florin, observe realities and lacunas (or accidental gaps) as independent word class in the scope of non­equivalent lexis which means objects and phenomena uncoinciding in comparison of two languages. Moreover, they also distinguish the concept of “reality” from the similar and frequently used terms “lacuna” and “exotism”.

The relevance of the work is connected with the fact that the problem of translation of realities is very common. Realities are the concepts inherent to the one culture and absent from another, that’s why their transmission by means of the translation language presents the special difficulty.

The aim of the work is the research of realities as independent group of lexical units, and the ways of their translation.

In the purpose of achieving the aim, the following tasks were set:

1. to study the term “reality” and its difference from the terms “non­equivalent lexis”, “exotism” and “lacuna”;
2. to classify the types of realities;
3. to consider the ways of their transmission by means of translation language.

The research object is the general ways of translation of realities.

The material for research were the romans “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov and “The Silence of the Lambs” by T. Harris.

The structure of the work: the work consists of the introduction, two chapters, the conclusion and the list of used literature. In the first chapter there is the brief observation of the linguistic worldview, the research of realities as the object of translation; in the second chapter there is a description of difficulties of the translation of realities, characteristics of the ways of their transmission by means of translation language and examples of the translation of realities into Russian taken from the different artistic texts.

The practical value of the work is determined by the possibility of the usage of its separate states. There is a particular importance in the analysis of the ways of the translation of uncoinciding elements from English into Russian and from Russian into English.

1. Reality as an object of translation.
2. Linguistic worldview.

Linguistic worldview is the historically set complex of the world submissions reflected in the language in the trivial consciousness of the linguistic community, it is the special way of the perception of the world arrangement.

The concept of the linguistic worldview on the one hand came from ideas of Wilhelm von Humboldt and neo-humboldtians, and on the other hand from the ideas of American Ethnolinguistics, particularly from the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity (Manakin, 2004: 45)

The term “linguistic worldview” was introduced to scientific terminological system by L. Weisberg. The main characteristics of linguistic worldview are following:

1. Linguistic worldview is the system of all possible contents: immaterial contents determining the originality of the culture and mentality of the given linguistic community, and language contents stipulating the existence and functionality of the language itself;
2. Linguistic worldview on the one hand is the consequence of historical development of the ethnos and the language, and on the other hand it is the reason of original way of their further development;
3. Linguistic worldview is clearly constructed and multileveled;
4. Linguistic worldview is changeable in the time;
5. Linguistic worldview constructs the uniformity of the linguistic entity contributing the fixation of linguistic and cultural originality in the worldview and its denotation by the language means;
6. Linguistic worldview exists in the uniform and original self- consciousness of the linguistic community and it is inherited by the following generations through the world outlook, lifestyle and code of conduct imprinted by the language means.
7. Linguistic worldview of the any language is its transforming power which forms the submission about the world through the language as the “intermediate world” of the native speakers.
8. Linguistic worldview of concrete linguistic community is its cultural domain.

The perception of the world partly depends on the cultural and national peculiarities of the native speakers of the concrete language. In the linguistic worldviews there is a large amount of discrepancies which are being studied by the ethnology, linguoculturology and other sciences. These discrepancies are caused by lots of factors, and the nature, culture and cognition are the main of them (Manakin, 2004: 49). Nature is the outer conditions of people life; natural conditions influence the peculiarities of people perception of the different natural phenomena. The second factor is the culture. Every peculiarity of the cultural sphere finds its reflection in the language. When talking about cognition it has to be mentioned that every person percepts the world in his own way. Consequently, the ways of the world perception of diverse cultures differs from each other.

As we see, the linguistic worldview of every culture is unique and unrepeatable. This means, while comparison we can see the presence of completely analogous concepts and uncoinciding concepts which are specific only to this culture. Concepts which are inherent to the certain ethnic community’s linguistic worldview are called non-equivalent lexis. One of the word groups of non­equivalent lexis is realities.

1. Reality in the theory of translation.

The word “reality” is Latin origin (lat. “realis” - material, actual). The translation of realities is the important and difficult problem in transmitting the national colouring and cultural peculiarities which has been faced in the very beginning of formation of the translation theory as scientific discipline. Firstly the term “reality” in its modem understanding was used by L.N. Sobolev in 1952. Realities also were described by G.V. Chernov who mostly used the term “non­equivalent lexis” and A.E. Suprun who observed realities as “exotic” lexis (Vemigorova, 2010: 184). E.M. Kolomeitseva and M.N Makeeva, relying on the works of L.S. Barkhudarov, also used the concept “non-equivalent lexis” interpreting it as “the lexical units of the language which have no full neither partial coincidences among the lexical units of another language” (Kolomeitseva, Makeeva, 2004: 38). E.M. Vereschagin and V.G. Kostomarov pointed that the words which meaning is impossible to compare with lexical units of foreign language have to be considered as non-equivalent. (Vereschagin, Kostomarov, 2005: 80). These words in the strict sense are untranslatable. Famous poet and translator Penkovsky mention, that, for example, in Heine’s poems there are a lot of proper names, geographical names and other realities which can’t be translated or changed, they must be saved during the translation. So, Penkovsky equals realities to the nen-equivalent lexis in the interpretation of Vereschagin and Kostomarov. G.D. Tomakhin in his work “Realities-Americanisms” gives the following explanation to this concept: “Realities are the names of subjects of material culture, historical facts, governmental institutes, the names of national and folk heroes, mythical creatures etc., which are inherent to the only one nation.” (Tomakhin, 1988: 5).

In this course work we are of the view of Bulgarian translation scholars S, Vlakhov and S. Florin, who observe realities as the independent word class within the frameworks of the non-equivalent lexis.

1. Lexical units uncoinciding in translation.

The term “non-equivalent lexis” (further - “NEL”) is met in the works of lots of authors, but it is differently interpreted by them: as a synonym for the word “reality”, as words of one language and culture absent from another, and just as untranslatable words. Non-equivalent lexis is the lexical and phraseological units which don’t have any translation coincidences in the target language (Vlakhov, Florin, 1980: 42). The concept “NEL” is wider by its contents then “realities”, which are the independent word group within the frameworks of NEL; terms, interjections, onomatopoeia, abbreviations, and derogations from literal norm are usually out of these frameworks; realities deal with proper names and phraseologisms. Moreover, NEL includes words which actually can be called non­equivalent lexis, or NEL in the narrow sense of the word, i.e. the units for some reason or another without lexical coincidences in the target language (Vlakhov, Florin, 1980: 43). There is one more sign differing the reality from the non­equivalent word: word can be a reality for all or for the great number of languages, but non-equivalent - only within the frameworks of the given language pair. Thus, if the amount of realities is permanent and doesn’t depend on the target language, the vocabulary of NEL changes for different language pairs.

The term “exotism” also requires the proper attention because lots of scientists use it as the alternative of the concept “reality”. Exotism is determined as the foreign word with following elaborations: 1) it came from little-known languages, generally from Indo-European languages; 2) it detennines the reality; 3) it is used for adding the special colouring to the speech. S. Vlakhov and S. Florin mention the more narrow sense of the concept “exotism” than “realities” giving the following arguments: firstly, exotism is only the foreign word for the target language; therefore, the source language’s own reality can’t be an exotism; secondly, exotism is the word already accepted in the given language, when the reality can be the occasionalism. Furthermore, in Russian the word “exotic” more frequently used in the meaning “strange, bizarre”, not “borrowed, foreign” (Vlakhov, Florin, 1980:40).

The tenn “lacuna” is understood as the “gap” or “omission” in the linguistic worldview of some nation, i.e. the absence of concrete concept in the target language, which is indicated as the lexical unit in the source language. This doesn’t mean the impossibility of describing this concept by means of the target language, but the absence of the analogical unit for indication this concept. The examples of suchlike words can be concepts absolutely absent in the target language, which are transmitted with the method of explication, i.e. the multiword explanation. The examples of Russian lacunas for English can be such words as “сутки”, “именины” etc. Thus, the difference of lacuna from reality is that there is the concept of the idea, which is the lacuna, in the target language, but there is no lexical unit for its indication. (Khashimova, 2004: 96).

Taking in account everything above mentioned, the following definition of reality can be given: these are words and word combinations which name objects specific for one nation and extraneous for another; being the carrier of national and/or historical colouring, they, as the rule, have not got the accurate coincidences in other languages, and, as follows, can’t be translated on the common grounds requiring the special approach (Vlakhov, Florin, 1980: 47)

1. Classification of realities.

There are a lot of classifications of realities by different features. In this course work the classification of S. Vlakhov and S. Florin will be shown:

I. Object division:

1. Geographical realities, including names of geographical objects related to the human activity, and also endemic types: taiga, tundra; kiwi, kangaroo, koala, sequoia.
2. Ethnographical realities:
3. Daily life:
4. food and drinks: борщ, щи, пирожки, окрошка, квас;
5. clothes: сарафан, кафтан, валенки, лапти;
6. accommodation, furniture: изба, сени, самовар, хрущёвка;
7. transport: жигули, тройка;
8. Labor:
9. people of labor: бригадир, стахановец;
10. tools: соха, трактор;
11. organization of labor: колхоз, совхоз;
12. Art and culture:
13. musical instruments: балалайка, гусли, домбра;
14. music and dances: казачок, частушка, кюй;
15. folk: былина, богатырь, батыр;
16. traditions and rites: Масленица, Старый Новый Год, коляда;
17. holidays and games: День Победы, Первомай, салки, Наурыз;
18. mythology: кикимора, домовой, леший;
19. cults, their followers, cult building and objects: раскольники, староверы, волхвы, распятие, скит;
20. Measures and money:
21. measure units: сажень, аршин, верста, пуд;
22. currencies: рубль, копейка, тиын, грош, алтын;
23. slang: сотка, пятак, червонец;
24. Social-political realities:
25. Administrative-territorial organization:
26. administrative-territorial units: волость, губерния, уезд;
27. localities: хутор, станица, аул;
28. Authorities and titles:

a)authorities: вече, дума, b) titles: царь, хан;

1. Social-political life:
2. political events and politicians: перестройка, сталинизм, опричники, большевики;
3. patriotic and social movements: декабристы, западники, “Народная воля”;
4. social events and their representants: продразвёрстка, нэп, коллективизация, нэпман;
5. rank, titles, degrees: народный артист, заслуженный артист, титулярный советник;
6. institutes: ЗАГС, РОНО, ЖКХ, КСК;
7. estates and their members: купечество, кулаки;
8. Military realities:
9. military units: сотня, дружина, орда;
10. weapon: палица, шашка, Катюша;
11. equipment: гимнастёрка, кольчуга;
12. servicemen: воевода, есаул, атаман.
13. Local division. In its basis there is not extra-lingual, but language principle which allows to observe realities 1) within the frameworks of one language, and 2) within the frameworks of language pair.
14. Within the frameworks of one language:
    1. Own realities - native words of the given language;
       1. National realities - name objects owned by the given nationality and extraneous outside the country (баня, матрешка);
       2. Local realities - owned by the dialect of the language of the other ethnic group representants on the territory of the given language (чум, яранга, айран, кумыс);
       3. Microrealities - words specific for one city, village or even family;
    2. Foreign realities - borrowings, caiques or transcribed words of other language:
       1. International realities - words spread into the row of languages (космонавт, спутник);
       2. Regional realities - words came out of the one country (большевик, колхоз).
15. In the plane of the language pair:
    1. Outer realities - equally extraneous for both languages (пудинг - outer reality for both Russian and French);
    2. Inner realities - belong to the one of the language pair (пудинг - outer reality for Russian, but inner reality for English).
16. Time division. On the basis of time criterion all realities can be divided into 1) modem (перестройка) and 2) historical (кушак).

Conclusion of the chapter I: in the first part of the work there was a short review of the concept of the linguistic worldview, the explanation and the examples of the term “reality”, the explanation of its difference from the tenns “non-equivalent lexis”, “exotism” and “lacuna”, and also the classification of realities by the various signs.

1.5 Difficulties in translation of realities.

Realities are the component of the background knowledge which is necessary for successful comprehension of the foreign texts. Insufficient knowledge of the country’s geography and history, its great historical figures, non­acquaintance with its culture and art can lead to the distortion of the facts in the translation process. The lack of background knowledge can lead to the literalism in the translation because of inability of detecting realities in the text.

The concept “translation of realities” is rather arbitrary because realities are untranslatable, but, wherein, they are transmitted in the context, because every lexical unit can be translated into other language, at least descriptively. The main difficulties in transmitting realities are 1) reality, as the rule, has not got an equivalent in the target language because of the absence of this object or phenomenon denoted by this reality and 2) the necessity of the transmitting national and historical colouring of this reality (Vlakhov, Florin, 1980: 47). It’s necessary to translate realities so that recipient would not have problems in comprehension of the text and would feel the local or national colouring by the means of reality the author of original used to transmit it. The most successful way of adding reality to the translation text is the way when the translator doesn’t use any special means for its explanation, and the reader has no problem with its understanding. Some realities, such as regional and international words, don’t require any special explanation at all (tequila, kangaroo). Moreover, in some occasions the author of translation can hope that the meaning of reality can be understood from the context. However, very often the translator doesn’t explain the meaning of these words overestimating background knowledge of the public and hopes that reared can find its meaning in the vocabulary himself. Sometimes reality can be changes by the neutral synonym in the target language. But this translation can’t be considered as successful in the case if the author of original paid the special attention to this reality or stressed on its importance (Tyulenev, 2004: 214).

So, the problem of transmitting reality is of the great importance for the translator: insertion of these elements is connected with their role given by the author of the text, and the means the translator used for their meaning disclosure. The total omission of reality is only possible after proper comprehension of its importance in the text and its dependence on the surrounding words.1.6 The ways of translation of realities in the artistic texts.

There are a lot of methods for transmission the reality to the target language. In general, they can be divided into two: borrowing and translation. Moreover, in some cases the reality can be omitted. In this course work it will be presented the classification of reality transmission on the basis of V.N. Komissarov’s classification (Komissarov, 1990: 148).

The ways of translation of realities

in artistic texts

1. Borrowing

Borrowing - is the most appropriate way of transmission the local colouring of reality. Transcription and transliteration are its methods.

1. Transcription - is the formal phonemic recreation of the source lexical unit with the phonemes of the target language, phonetic imitation of the source word.
2. Transliteration - is the formal letter recreation of the source lexical unit with the letters of the target language’s alphabet, letter imitation of the source word. It is used rarer than transcription. Because the transmission of the sound is better than the transmission of the graphical form in facilitating the comprehension of national colouring.

Using these methods the translator gets over above mentioned difficulties, but the failed input of transcription/transliteration to the text can complicate its comprehension.

The translation of realities is used in the cases when the usage of transcription or transliteration by some reasons is unwanted. It can be released by the following methods:

1. Input of neologism - is the creation of the new word or word combination. After the borrowing it is the best way of transmission the content and colouring of the reality, but at the same time is the least used way.
   1. Caique -is the metaphrase, reproduction not of sound but the combinatorial structure of word or the word combination, when the morphemes are translated by the matching elements of the target language.
   2. Semicaique - is the partial borrowing when one of the elements of reality is translated with the transcription/transliteration, and another with caique.
   3. Familiarization - is the adaptation of foreign reality, giving to it the word form on the basis of foreign material owned by the target language. When using this method reality often loses its part of semantic contain.
   4. Semantic neologism - conditionally new word or word combination made up by the translator to transmit the meaning of the reality. It differs from reality with the absence of etymological connection with original word.
2. Approximate translation - is frequently used for the transmission of reality. In this case it is possible to transmit the content of reality losing its colouring.
   1. Hyponymic translation - is the change of the specific concept on the generic (more rare - the change of the generic concept on the specific), i.e. the explanation of the meaning of reality using the lexical unit with wider (narrower) meaning.
   2. Assimilating translation - helps to change the unknown reality on the well-known. This method is based on the usage of functional element which recalls the same associations in the mind of the translation reader as in the original reader’s mind.
   3. Descriptive translation - is used when the translator by some reasons cannot use any other method and has to explain the unknown concept. In this case the reality is not translated with the analogical unit of the target language, and the possibility of not-full understanding as in the cases of transcription or caique is completely excluded.
3. Transfonnational (conceptual) translation - the usage of this method shows that the translator relies on the context when choosing the proper equivalent. There is no accordance for the reality - its meaning is transmitted by the transfonnation of the context.
4. Omission

Omission is not the method of translation (in this case the translation is absent); it is one of the possible ways of dealing with reality during the translation

of the foreign text. It is the most unwanted method in the transmitting of the artistic text because not only the colouring is lost but also the meaning the author gave to reality inputting it to his text.

II. Practical part. Examples of translation of realities in the artistic texts.

For the better visuality the concrete examples of the translation of the realities from English into Russian with necessary notes will be observed in the roman “The Silence of the Lambs” by T. Harris.

The examples of translation realities from Russian into English will be taken from the roman of M.A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”. We will observe three different variants of translation (by R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky; by K. O’Connell and by M. Glenny).

1. Examples of translation of realities from English into Russian.

1. Borrowing.

• 1. Transcription. This method, as transliteration, is used in the transmission of the realities, especially proper names, and sometimes is accompanied by the additional means of comprehension.

In “The Silence of the Lambs” there is the following example: 1) “The Law Enforcement Bulletin says you're working on a database, but you aren't operational yet”, in the translation - “В “Ло инфорсмент бюллетен” писали, что вы активно работаете в этом направлении, но пока без особых результатов”. The translator uses the method of transcription without explanation of the meaning of reality, because it can be easily output from the context: The Law Enforcement Bulletin is the magazine monthly published by the FBI). There is one more example from this roman: 2) “ ...the Italian edition of Vogue” - “ ...итальянского издания журнала «Вот»”. Unlike The Law Enforcement Bulletin Vogue is the worldwide known American magazine, so, in my opinion, it would be more appropriate to save the original form of its name - “Vogue”.

Finally, there is an example of the same text: 3) “I had a ticket to Holiday on Ice”, in the translation - “У меня был билет на «Холидей он айс»”. Proper names are usually translated with the transcription/transliteration, but this name would not be clear to the Russian reader, the comment given by the translator in the notes is necessary: “«Холидей он айс» - «Праздник на льду» - is the popular ice show troupe, where the famous stars of figure skating perform”.

• 1. Transliteration

In “The Silence of the Lambs” we find the following example: 1) “It started as a bad joke in Kansas City homicide” - “Это началось с неудачной шутки в Отделе по расследованию убийств Канзас-Сити”. It does not require any additional explanations because it is clear that Kansas City is the locality. The next occasion is from the same roman: 2) “What do you know about Buffalo Bill?” - “А что вы знаете о Буффало Билле?” In the original the author when making up the name for the serial killer resorted to the allusion (Buffalo Bill is the nickname given to William Frederick Cody, the American hunter, because once he had killed the record number of buffalos). The explanation of the reality would make the text of the translation more cumbersome, that is why the translator uses two methods at the same time: transliteration and compensation to the equivalent transmission (“.. .он сдирает с них кожу, словно с горба буйвола”).

1. Translation
   1. Input of the neologism
      1. Caique - is a quite popular method of the translation of the realities such as natural objects, names of states, state institutes, positions etc.

There are some examples from “The Silence of the Lambs”: 1) “The caller was Catherine's mother, the junior U.S. Senator from Tennessee” - “Звонила мать Кэтрин — младший член сената США от штата Теннесси”. In this example the data about the USA voting system were excess because the reading public is well- acquainted with the concept “senator”, that is why the translation with the caique is quite adequate. 2) “...just like the arms on the popular Disney watches” - “...так же как стрелки на всем известных диснеевских часах” - here the translator resorts to the caique and explains the meaning of the reality in the notes to the text. In the translation it would be impossible to explain its meaning avoiding the burden of the text style; moreover, this activity is not compulsory because the author of the original mentions the similarity of the Disney watches of the hero, the description was given in the text. 3) “Next question: Do you know the Fourth Amendment stuff for Friday?” - “...ты хоть что-нибудь знаешь к экзамену по Четвертой поправке?” - the translator also explains what does the Fourth Amendment mean in the notes to the text (the Fourth Amendment to the Constitution of the USA proclaims the rights on the personal and property inviolability and forbids unfounded searches, detentions, seizures and arrests). In the next example the explanation is not required at all because the concept “FBI” has already become the international reality: 4) “.. .a Section Chief of the FBI...” - “...начальник отдела ФБР...”.

• • 1. Semicaique - is the combination of the caique and translation/transliteration.

Examples form “The Silence of the Lambs” will be observed the first: 1) “...he was a guest lecturer at the University of Virginia” - “...когда он приезжал читать лекции в Университет штата Вирджиния”; 2) “ ...the Maryland Department of Motor Vehicles...” - “... автотранспортное управление штата Мэриленд ...” - here the names of the states were translated with the transcription, the names of the organizations - with the caique; 3) “ Look, I've got some information on Split City Mini-Storage... ” - “ Послушайте, у меня есть кое-какая информация о «Мини-складах Сплит-сити...»”, 4) “ Some duck hunters in West Virginia found a body in the Elk River...” - “ Охотники на уток в Западной Вирджинии обнаружили в реке Элк труп...” - transliteration + caique.

The next fragment contains the following reality: 5) “A venerable twin- engined Beechcraft stood on the taxiway at the Quantico airstrip” - “Почтенного возраста двухмоторный «бичкрафт» стоял на взлетной полосе служебного аэродрома Квонтико” (transcription + caique). From the text of the translation it becomes clear that Beechcraft is a helicopter (it was named after the firm-producer of the training airplanes), that is why the usage of the semicaique is without comments can be considered as sufficient.

As we see, the usage of the semicaique allows attaining the equivalence in the translation without making the text cumbersome.

• • 1. Familiarization - is the adaptation of the reality to the norms of the target language; the new word gets the more familiar form for the language native speaker. There are examples of the familiarization in the observed roman.

1. Квантифицировать (“You'd like to quantify me, Officer Starling” - “Вам хотелось бы меня квантифицировать, офицер Старлинг”) - to determine in the easiest terms;
2. Коронер (“Dr. Chilton is with the coroner and the assistant district attorney...” - “У доктора Чилтона совещание с коронером и заместителем районного прокурора...”) - the investigator proceeding the pre-inquest and defining if the death was violent;
3. Рейнджер (“Starling had declined with thanks the chairs of two Texas Rangers... ” - “Старлинг уже отказалась — с благодарностью — от нескольких стульев, предложенных ей поочередно двумя техасскими рейнджерами...”) - a chasseur, the member of the military security, cavalry policeman;
4. Кетчер (“...crafty catcher, tough when he blocked the plate” - “...ловкий кетчер, стойкий и яростный, когда надо преградить путь противнику”) - a catcher, the member of the baseball team.
   • 1. Semantic neologism - is the new word or word combination which is made up by the translator when the meaning of reality is impossible to transmit. There is an analysis of the examples from “The Silence of the Lambs”: 1) “That Vanderbilt...” - “Вандербильдиха...” In the original this nickname is given to the one of the heroines; this means that the translator had to create the similar nickname but with negative connotation. In Russian this effect can be attained by the addition of the suffix “их” to the surname. 2) “...were sent around to work out at Slenderella...” - “...были направлены в диетические клубы и центры, такие, как «Стройнесса»...” Here the translator had to make up a good name for the fitness centre. In the original it is made up by the mix of the words “slender” and “Cinderella”; the translator on the basis of the same semes “ideal complexion” and “fairy heroine” makes his own word: “стройный” + “принцесса” - “Стройнесса”.
5. Hyponymic translation - allows changing the concept with the narrow sense to the wider one (sometimes vice versa) in the cases when it cannot lead to the considerable meaning distortions.
6. “Hardly the best brains on the campus...” - “Далеко не лучшие университетские умы...” In this example the reality “campus” - “university village” is changed to the wider concept “university”. 2) “...and he doesn't get any Jell-O...” - “...лишит сладостей” - в in the text of translation we have not the name of the firm but the product it produces. 3) “...along the deserted Hogan's Alley...” - “...no опустевшему стрельбищу...”. “Hogan's Alley” - is the training camp of FBI, its name the translator changes on the clearer to the reader word “стрельбище”. 4) “Crawford took a jar of Vicks VapoRub out of his pocket...” - “Крофорд достал из кармана баночку с какой-то пахучей мазью...”. “Vicks VapoRub” -is the producer of the remedy for the hard breath; this information is excess, is maning can be transmitted with by the wide concept “пахучая мазь”. 5) “...collection of Franklin Mint locomotives...” - “...коллекции миниатюрных локомотивов...” - the name of the firm producing different collection objects and souvenirs (“Franklin Mint”) is omitted in the translation; but instead of it the translator uses the attribute “миниатюрный”.

As we see, the hyponymic translation is often used in the cases when the name of the concrete trademark is changed to its production by the translator.

1. Assimilating translation - is the search of the analogue for the foreign reality in the target language, which will be clear to the recipient.
2. “Six inches of sodden leaves, mixed with paper cups and small trash...” - “...горка мусора — промокшие листья вперемешку с обрывками газет, бумажными стаканчиками, обертками от конфет” (inch - горка); 2) “...205 pounds...” - “...82 кг...” (pound - килограмм). In the role of the functional analogue there are objects and the units of measure fit to the comparison of the target language country.

3) “...hound’s tooth jacket...” - “...замшевую куртку...” (узор “hound’s tooth” - material); 4) “We can go in the club car...” - “Можно пойти в вагон- ресторан” (club car - passenger stock with the bar); 5) “ She and old Marty were drinking Tom Collinses... ” - “Она и Марти пили прохладительное... ” (“Tom Collinse - is he soft drink with the ice”); 6) “He was supposed to be my Student Adviser...” - “...oh считался моим репетитором-старшеклассником”; 7) “...his picture in your Year Book...” - “...его портрет в школьном альбоме...”; 8) “They were these dark brown loafers..- “Я эти туфли еще не видел, они были новые. Темно-коричневые...” (loafers/лоферы - is the model of shoes with leather brush as the decoration element); 9) “I got an F in it” - “Я и получил кол”; 10) “...we all had to stand up in the grandstand and give him a locomotive-that’s a cheer” - “...мы должны были вскочить на трибуны и трубить вовсю, то есть кричать ему «Ура!»”

1. Descriptive translation - is the transmission of the reality with the explanation of its meaning. It is used when the usage of other methods is unwanted or impossible.

There are some examples:

1. “Like the Sunday divorce flight from La Guardia to Juarez...” - “Как воскресный рейс Ла-Гардиа — Хуарес, обслуживающий тех, кто стремится побыстрее оформить развод...” (Juarez - is the Mexican city on the board with the USA where the divorce is legalized in one day);
2. “...in the Thanksgiving parade” - “...на параде в честь Дня Благодарения” (The Thanksgiving Day is a state holiday in the USA celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November. In Ney York there is a big parade held by the biggest market Macy’s);
3. “...you have a string of gold add-a-beads...” - “...вы прячете нитку золотых бусин, тех, что дарят девушкам по одной на день рождения...”;
4. “...old viewer glowed like a Jack-o'-lantern...” - “...старый диаскоп светился как вырезанный из тыквы фонарь...” (“Jack-o'-lantem” is the name of the main Halloween attributes which came from the Irish legend about miser Jack”);
5. “Clarice Starling leaned against a dice table in the FBI's casino...” - “Клэрис Старлинг, прислонившись к игорному столу (занятия шли в учебном казино ФБР)...”;
6. “.. .this is an affidavit...” - “.. .это — официальное обязательство...”
   1. Transformational (conceptual) translation - there is no accordance for the reality; its meaning has to be cleared up according to the context.

There is an extract from the roman “The Silence of the Lambs”: 1) “The other vehicle, an "eyeball van" with one-way glass and surveillance equipment, was parked on Virginia Avenue...” - “Вторая машина — фургон «недреманное око» с оборудованием для наружного наблюдения, с окнами, прозрачными лишь изнутри, — встала на Вирджиния-авеню...”. For the translation of the word combination “eyeball van” (“eyeball” - “глазное яблоко”, “van” - “фургон”) no one from the above mentioned methods can be used; in the original it is a comic nickname for the one car. That is why in this case the translator had to create the similar word combination which would be able to transmit the meaning of this nickname based on the context and described situation.

1. Omission - in lots of cases this method is unwanted to se, but its usage is possible if it does not lead to the distortion of the information earned by the text. There is an example:

“His voice was both high and hoarse. She was reminded of Aldo Ray” - “Голос у него был высокий и хриплый”. Aldo Ray (1926 - 1991) is an American actor; the voice of the roman’s main hero is associated with his. For the American reader who has watched the films with his participation the understanding of the meaning of this reality is easy. But the Russian reader does

not know the real voice of this actor. That is why the omission of the whole sentence is reasoned and even necessary because this information for the Russian reading public is not really important.

• 1. Examples of translation of realities from Russian into English.

It is obvious that there are a lot of difficulties the translator has to face while translation of such roman as “The Master and Margarita”. The epoch of this roman of full of peculiarities of USSR which will be hard for foreign readers. To understand this without commentaries of translator the reader has to know the politics, problems, traditions, ideology of that time. In this course work we will compare the translation of British translator (M. Glenny), the co-work of Russian and American translators (R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky) and the work of American translator K. O’Connell.

1. In the first chapter “Never talk to strangers” all the translators use transliteration for the first place mentioned in the book: “Patriarch’s ponds”, but only R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky gives commentary:The Patriarch’s Ponds: Bulgakov uses the old name for what in 1918 was rechristened ‘Pioneer Ponds’. Originally these were three ponds, only one of which remains, on the place where Philaret, eighteenth-century patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church, had his residence.

In this case the commentary is not necessary, but nevertheless it gives additional information that can be used to complete the image of readers.

1. The next occasion is the translation of the name of the literary organization called МАССОЛИТ (Массовые советские литераторы). In all translation we see caique MASSOLIT.

K. O’ Connell gives the following commentary:

MASSOLIT—a very funny acronym in Russian, which might be best conveyed in English as LOTSALIT. Bulgakov found the Soviet passion for acronyms very funny, and made up various absurd ones throughout his career, although the real ones were bizarre enough.

R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky’s commentary is the following:

Massolit: An invented but plausible contraction parodying the many contractions introduced in post-revolutionary Russia. There will be others further on - Dramlit House (House for Dramatists and Literary Workers), findirector (financial director), and so on.

In my opinion, despite K. O’Connell does not give the explanation of this acronym (Mass Soviet litterateurs), her commentary is more appropriate because it shows sarcastic attitude of the author.

3) Different ways were chosen in translation of the name of the main hero. R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky use transfonnational translation. They translate the nickname Бездомный as Homeless with the following commentary: Homeless: In early versions of the novel, Bulgakov called his poet Bezrodny (‘Tastless’ or ‘Familyless’). Many ‘proletarian’ writers adopted such pen-names, the most famous being Alexei Peshkov, who called himself Maxim Gorky (gorky meaning ‘bitter’). Others called themselves Golodny (‘Hungry’), Besposhchadny (‘Merciless’), Pribludny (‘Stray’). Worthy of special note here is the poet Efim Pridvorov, who called himself Demian Bedny (‘Poor’), author of violent anti- religious poems. It may have been the reading of Bedny that originally sparked Bulgakov’s impulse to write The Master and Margarita. In his Journal of 1925 (the so-called ‘Confiscated Journal’ which turned up in the files of the KGB and was published in 1990), Bulgakov noted: ‘Jesus Christ is presented as a scoundrel and swindler... There is no name for this crime.’

K. O’Connell uses the method of caique, so in her book we see the name Bezdomny with the commentary:

Bezdomny—this name literally means "Homeless," and brings to mind an entire series of famous pseudonyms, starting with Maksim Gorky ("the Bitter") and ending with Demyan Bedny ("the Poor"). Bedny is apposite in that he was known for especially egregious antireligious works, such as the 1925 The New Testament without Defects of the Evangelist Demyan. Although some have sought historical prototypes for every character in the novel, few of those suggested for the main characters are convincing. Bulgakov's main characters tend to be a blend of many sources, and sometimes are deliberate abstractions (the Master himself is a good example of this). Minor characters, however, do tend to have recognizable sources in a single figure.

I agree with the method used by K. O’Connell because she saved the original name of the hero.

1. To translate the name of the cigarettes “Наша Марка” all translators use caique “Our Brand”. I think it would be better to use transcription “Nasha marka” to save the Russian colouring.
2. The second chapter “Pontius Pilate” is full of transliterations. All the proper names such as Понтий Пилат, Иудея, Ершалаим, Еалилеи, Гамала, Гегемон, Иешуа Га-Ноцри, Левий Матвей were translated this way: Pontius Pilate, Judea, Yershalaim, Galilee, Hamala, Hegemon, Yeshua Ha-Nozri, Matthew Levi. All translators give historical references to these names.
3. In the third chapter “The seventh proof’ there is the following difference in the result of transcription of the word Метрополь.

R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky write it as Metropol (A luxury hotel in Moscow, built at the turn of the century, decorated with mosaics by the artist Vrubel. Used mainly by Foreigners during the Soviet period, it still exists and has recently been renovated).

K. O’Connell spells it as Metropole, (the beautiful time-of-the-century hotel in Moscow's center, used at this time for high-ranking foreigners)

The K. O’Connell’s variant is more suitable from the phonetical point of view because the letter “e” softens the last consonant making the word sound as in Russian.

1. The roman was written at the time when the bedsit (коммунальная квартира) was a main feature of ordinary people’s life. So, there was a great task for translators to save this peculiarity with the fullest explanation of this kind of accommodation.

The first peculiarity of the bedsits was the presence of two entrances: front door was only for bedsit’s occupants and the back door was for servants (milkmen, janitors etc). In the fourth chapter “The Chase” there is the following episode describing the typical bedsit:

«Один лунный луч, просочившись сквозь пыльное, годами не вытираемое окно, скупо освещал тот угол, где в пыли и паутине висела забытая икона, из-за киота которой высовывались концы двух венчальных свечей. Под большой иконой висела пришпиленная маленькая - бумажная. Никому не известно, какая тут мысль овладела Иваном, но только, прежде чем выбежать на черный ход, он присвоил одну из этих свечей, а также и бумажную иконку».

"A single moonbeam, having seeped through the dusty, perennially unwashed window, shone sparsely into the comer where, in dust and cobwebs, a forgotten icon hung, with the ends of two wedding candles (two wedding candles: In the Orthodox marriage service, the bride and groom stand during the ceremony holding lighted candles. These are special, large, often decorated candles, and are customarily kept indefinitely after the wedding, sometimes in the comer with the family icon) peeking out from behind its casing. Under the big icon, pinned to it, hung a little one made of paper. No one knows what thought took hold of Ivan here, but before running out the back door, he appropriated one of these candles, as well as the paper icon". (R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky)

"A single ray of moonlight, struggling through a dirty window that had not been cleaned for years, cast a dim light into one comer where there hung a forgotten ikon, the stubs of two candles still stuck in its frame. Beneath the big ikon was another made of paper and fastened to the wall with tin-tacks. Nobody knows what came over Ivan but before letting himself out by the back staircase he stole one of the candles and the little paper ikon" (M. Glenny).

The methods used by translators (familiarization and hyponymic translation) are not good enough. The existence of two doors shows inequality in Russian society, but it means nothing for foreign reader without remark. Both translators faced the problem of the importance not to be maximally close to the original, but to save the spirit of that time.

1. Bedsit was a kind of flat where residents had one room to themselves and shared washing and cooking facilities with other residents. So, another peculiarity of bedsit was forced neighbourhood of unacquainted people.

In the fourth chapter there is the following phrase:

«на плите в полумраке стояло безмолвно около десятка потухших примусов».

"...On the oven in the semi-darkness silently stood about a dozen extinguished primuses (Commentary: The shortage of living space after the revolution led to the typically Soviet phenomenon of the communal apartment, in which several families would have one or two private rooms and share kitchen and toilet facilities. This led to special psychological conditions among people and to a specific literary genre (the communal-apartment story, which still flourishes in Russia). The primus stove, a portable one burner stove fuelled with pressurized benzene, made its appearance at the same time and became a symbol of communal-apartment life. Each family would have its own primus. The old wood - or (more rarely) coal burning ranges went out of use but remained in place. The general problem of “living space”, and the primus stove in particular, plays an important part throughout the Moscow sections of The Master and Margarita]". (R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky)

"In the gloom a silent row of ten or so Primuses stood on a marble slab". (M. Glenny)

The first translation is more successful as translators add a commentary for the explaining of communal living peculiarities.

1. This kind of neighbourhood gave rise for spying and whistleblowing. They say that every bedsit “had its own mad, drunkard, bastard and sneak”. In the twenty first chapter “Flight” Margarita witnesses the quarrel of two neighbours:

«Свет надо тушить за собой в уборной, вот что я вам скажу, Пелагея Петровна, - говорила та женщина, перед которой была кастрюля с какой-то снедью, от которой валил пар, - а то мы на выселение на вас подадим!»

"You should turn the toilet light off after you, that's what I'm telling you, Pelageya Petrovna,' said the woman before whom there was a pot with some sort of eatables steaming in it, 'or else we'll apply to have you evicted". (R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky)

"You should put the light out when you come out of the lavatory, I've told you before, Pelagea Petrovna,' said the woman with a saucepan of some steaming decoction,' otherwise we'll have you chucked out of here" (M. Glenny).

Both translators did not solve the main problem: for the foreign readers it is not clear why one woman can threaten another with eviction. This idea can only be explained with full commentary.

The conclusion by the chapter II: in the second part of the work there is the concrete classification of the realities by the different characteristics; the main difficulties if the translation of the reality were observed; and the ways of their transmission with the means of the target language were considered. The examples for the illustration of these methods were taken from the “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov and “The Silence of the Lambs” by T. Harris.

CONCLUSION

The object of research is the realities in the artistic texts. Out interest to the theme of the research is caused by the fact that in the modem translation studying the transmission of the realities is one of the most difficult and disputable questions.

For the research of the ways of the realities translation two artistic texts were chosen: “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov and “The Silence of the Lambs” by T. Harris. This choice is explained by the fact that these romans are highly popular among the readers all over the world and they are on the special place in the American and Russian literature of the XX century.

We can make some more conclusions based on the held research.

The existence of the realities is closely connected with the uniqueness of the linguistic worldviews of the different nations. Linguistic worldview is the totality of the national ideas about the world which found their reflection in the language. The ways if the comprehension of the world in one nation can differ from another, thus, in comparison of the linguistic worldviews we can find concepts in each which have no accordance in the others. Their appearance is influenced by the nature, culture and perception. These concepts are united by the common name “non-equivalent lexis”, and the realities are the part of it.

It is necessary to differ the concepts “reality”, “non-equivalent lexis”, “exotism” and “lacuna”. The word can be a reality for all or for many languages, but non-equivalent within the frameworks of the given language pair. Exotism is the foreign word for the target language because the reality of the source language cannot be an exotism. Moreover, the exotism is the word came into lexis of the target language, when the reality can be occasionalism. In the case of lacuna, the subject or phenomena meant by it is clear for the target language native speaker, but the lexical unit conformed to it is absent for some reason.

There are three main principles of the classification of realities: subject, local and time division. Each of the groups includes smaller groups containing words united by the common characteristics.

The transmission of the realities, as the rule, makes a lot of troubles for the translator, and the main of them are the absence of the accordance on the target language and the necessity of the transmission of the national colouring. The successful input of the reality to the text is when the translator does not use any special methods for its comprehension, and the reader has no problems with the perception of the information.

In general, all the methods of the translation of realities can be grouped into three main: borrowing, translation and omission. Borrowing in the state of the transcription and transliteration is the most appropriate method for the transmission of the national colouring and common atmosphere of the describing situation. Using this method the translator solves two above mentioned difficulties, but unsuccessful input of the borrowing to the text can affect on the right perception. The translation of the realities includes three main methods: the input of the neologism, approximate translation and the transformational translation. The most common is the approximate translation; however, in many cases the national colouring is vanished. The method of omission is better to use only when it does not bring the harm to the concept of the text.

On the basis that all tasks were fulfilled we can say that the aim of the course work - the research of the realities and the ways of their translation - was attained.

The information given in the course work can be useful for students of philological faculties, for teachers of Universities and for translators. The visual aid created by the author of the course work can be used in teaching specialization and other subjects connected with the theory of translation.

THE LIST OF USED LITERATUTE

1. “The Silence of the Lambs” by T. Hams;
2. “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov in translation of R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky;
3. “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov in translation of K. O’Connell;
4. “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov in translation of M. Glenny;
5. “Мастер и Маргарита” M.A. Булгаков;
6. “Иностранный язык” В.А. Вернигорова;
7. “Непереводимое в переводе” С. Влахов, С. Флорин;
8. “Лексические проблемы перевода с английского на русский” Е.М. Коломейцева, М.Н. Макеева;
9. “Сопоставительная лексикология” В.Н. Манакин;
10. “Реалии - американизмы” Г.Д. Томахин;
11. “Language, Culture, and Society: Key Topics in Linguistic Anthropology” Cambridge Univercity Press
12. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
13. http://www.translationdirectory.com/
14. http://www.confcontact.com
15. http://philologos.narod.ru