Автор Анна Евкова
Преподаватель который помогает студентам и школьникам в учёбе.

Логистический подход к управлению запасами (Экономическая роль запасов в логистических системах)

Содержание:

Введение

Фирма XXI века, основной агент рыночной экономики, рассматривает логистику в качестве главного инструмента обеспечения эффективного функционирования и укрепления конкурентных позиций. Владение инструментами логистического менеджмента в практике бизнеса позволяет фирмам снизить уровень запасов на 30-50%, сократить время движения продукции на 25-45%, ускорить оборачиваемость капитала, снизить себестоимость продукции, обеспечить удовлетворение потребностей получателей в качественной продукции и услугах.

В современном мире производственно-коммерческие предприятия действуют в условиях жесткой конкуренции, когда главным условием процветания фирмы является ресурсный фактор. Это ведет к поиску путей снижения всех видов издержек. Известно, что около 85% времени материальные ресурсы в том или ином виде находятся в запасах, в которых «омертвляются» значительные финансовые средства. Что касается издержек на содержание запасов, то в структуре типичной производственной компании они составляют примерно 37% всех логистических издержек. У дистрибьюторов эта доля повышается до 44%, поскольку на запасы приходится относительно большая часть активов. Таким образом, большие резервы снижения затрат фирм лежат в сфере управления запасами.

Объектом исследования является производственные запасы. Предмет исследования – управление производственными запасами на предприятиях.

В первой главе раскрывается роль запасов в логистической системе, теоретические основы их управления с точки зрения логистического подхода.

Во второй главе описываются принципиальные подходы управления запасами внутрипроизводственных систем, рассмотрены особенности и современные тенденции управления запасами на предприятиях двух быстро развивающихся отраслей машиностроения, продемонстрирован опыт использования логистических концепций отечественными предприятиями и достигнутый результат.

В третьей главе выявлены основные проблемы, тормозящие развитие управления запасами на уровне лидирующих мировых компаний в рассматриваемых отраслях и предложены пути совершенствования процесса управления запасами.

Цель данной курсовой работы заключается в разработке рекомендации по формированию и совершенствованию системы управления производственными запасами на отечественных предприятиях.

Глава 1. Экономическая роль запасов в логистических системах

1.1 Сущность, виды и функции материальных запасов

Материальные запасы представляют собой одну из древних категорий, с которой человечество столкнулось, переходя от собирательства и охоты к земледелию. На протяжении многих веков человечество решало проблему сохранности собранных продуктов (хранения произведенного материального запаса) до следующего урожая. В ХХ веке, с технической точки зрения, сохранность любых продуктов была обеспечена, и на первый план стали выдвигаться экономические вопросы рационального управления запасами.

Материальные запасы в зависимости от их измерителей делятся на абсолютные и относительные. Первые могут измеряться в натуральном и стоимостном выражении. Вторые выражаются в днях (иногда часах) обеспеченности производства (продаж) запасом данного материала или товара. При натуральном хозяйстве абсолютные и относительные размеры запасов были незначительны. По мере развития товарного производства размер абсолютных запасов имеет тенденцию роста. Более сложные процессы наблюдаются в динамике показателей относительных запасов, которые подвержены влиянию различных факторов. В современных условиях эти размеры запаса определяются разными факторами:

  1. макро- или микроэкономический уровень
  2. степень открытости/замкнутости экономики
  3. масштабы производственно-коммерческой деятельности, конъюнктура рынка, уровень специализации и кооперирования
  4. конкурентная структура рынка и степень вмешательства государства
  5. геологическая структура рынка (размещение источников сырья, производств и рынков сбыта, развитость транспортной и логистической инфраструктуры и пр.)
  6. степень унификации, стандартизации выпускаемой продукции

Существенное влияние также оказывает НТП в сфере управления, в области информационных, банковских, транспортно-складских технологий и степень эффективности логистического менеджмента различных субъектов экономики. Сегодня логистический менеджмент широко применяется во всех областях экономики. В основе этой практической деятельности лежат теоретические основы логистики[1].

В логистике основными объектами управления являются материальные запасы. Как мы уже отмечали, до 85% времени движения изделия от момента начала его производства и до конечного потребления приходится на хранение в качестве запаса. Собственно производство товаров занимает лишь 2% суммарного времени, заготовительно-заключительные работы – 8%, а внешняя транспортировка – 5%[2]. Разнообразие и различие в причинах возникновения, в выполняемых экономических функциях запасов требует их классификации[3].

Типы запаса выделяются в зависимости от объема вложенного в них труда, сырья и материалов. Структура материального запаса фирмы по типам во многом определяется ее отраслевой принадлежностью, типом производства, уровнем ее специализации и кооперирования. В промышленности, как правило, наибольший удельный вес составляют материалы и готовая продукция. В отдельных отраслях обрабатывающей промышленности с длительным производственным циклом (судостроение, авиастроение и т.п.) преобладают запасы незавершенного производства, в сфере услуг и добывающих отраслях промышленности значительная часть запаса – изделия для ремонта и содержания зданий, оборудования и других основных средств. В сельской промышленности в зимний период преобладают производственные запасы, в весенне-летний период повышается незавершенное производство, в осенний период за счет выхода продукции падают объемы незавершенного производства и увеличиваются остатки товарной продукции.

Сочетание типов запаса, их функций в процессе воспроизводства и местонахождения позволяет разделить совокупный материальный запас (макроэкономический уровень) на 6 видов, из которых первые 4 рассматриваются в теории запасов (микроэкономический уровень). Основную часть СМЗ составляют производственные и товарные запасы, на управление которыми и ориентирована логистика запасов. Производственные запасы формируются в производственных и сервисных системах. Их функция – бесперебойное материально-техническое обеспечение производственного процесса. К этому виду запаса относят предметы труда, поступившие на предприятие, но не подвергнутые переработке. Товарные запасы включают в себя готовую продукцию на складах фирм-производителей (сбытовые запасы) и часть запасов, находящихся на предприятиях оптовой и розничной торговли. Их основная функция – обеспечение нормального хода процесса продаж.

Производственные и товарные запасы в свою очередь условно делят на 4 части. Текущие запасы обеспечивают непрерывность снабжения производственного процесса между двумя поставками или бесперебойность продаж. Подготовительные запасы выделяются при необходимости дополнительной их подготовки перед использованием в производстве или отпуском потребителям. Страховые запасы необходимы для обеспечения непрерывного хода логистического процесса в случае непредвиденных обстоятельств (изменение интенсивности потребления материального ресурса). Сезонные запасы призваны обеспечить нормальную работу в период сезонных перерывов в производстве или транспортировке, а также сгладить сезонные колебания величины спроса. Текущие запасы составляют основную часть производственных и товарных запасов и находятся, как правило, в динамике. Выделяют еще отдельные разновидности запасов в зависимости от возможностей дальнейшего использования:

  • Переходящие – остатки материальных ресурсов на конец отчетного периода, обеспечивающие непрерывности производства и потребления в следующем периоде до момента поступления очередной партии.
  • Неликвидные – товарные запасы, не реализуемые в течение длительного времени.
  • Сверхнормативные – запасы, уровень которых превышает установленные нормы запасов.

Формирование, содержание и управление запасами требуют затрат. Выделяют 5 типов издержек, оказывающих влияние на выбор стратегии управления запасами:

  1. Издержки, связанные с осуществлением поставок
  2. Издержки содержания (хранения) запасов
  3. Издержки выполнения заказов покупателей
  4. Издержки, связанные с дефицитом запасов, когда поступающие требования (заявки на товарно-материальные ресурсы) не могут быть удовлетворены
  5. Издержки по управлению логистической системой (содержание административно-управленческого персонала, сбор и обработка информации).

Принято считать, что эффективность управления запасами характеризуют показатели оборачиваемости. К ним относятся:

1. Коэффициент оборачиваемости (число оборотов). Исчисляется путем деления объема оборота (реализации, продаж, отгрузки) на среднюю величину запаса за отчетный период.

2. Время одного оборота запаса характеризует продолжительность одного оборота запаса в днях и показывает, сколько дней в среднем находился в запасе данный вид материального ресурса от момента его поступления на склад до момента реализации.

3. Запасоемкость – показатель, отражающий отношение величины запасов к объему реализации (продаж) за период. В логистической системе микроуровня его динамика характеризует изменение эффективности соответствующих бизнес-процессов[4].

Зачастую при проведении экономического анализа с помощью традиционных подходов упускаются внутренние взаимосвязи, существующие между показателями эффективности, определяющими их затратами и экономическими результатами. Результаты анализа показывают, что показатель рентабельности может достигать своего максимума только тогда, когда материальные запасы находятся на оптимальном уровне, а также и показатель оборачиваемости.

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

ly. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b"

de, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

us bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general.

On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited:

a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health;

b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others."

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general.

On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited:

a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health;

b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others."

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general.

On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited:

a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health;

b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others."

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general.

On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited:

a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health;

b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general.

On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited:

a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health;

b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others."

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general.

On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited:

a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health;

b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others."

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

1.2 Методы и модели управления материальными запасами

Материальный поток – материальная продукция (грузы, детали, ТМЦ), рассматриваемая в процессе приложения к ней различных логистических операций и отнесенная к временному интервалу. Когда поток отнесен к моменту времени, он переходит в запас, форму движения материального потока при нулевой скорости его перемещения в пространстве. Они образуются в логистических системах (звеньях, цепях) вследствие несинхронности входного и выходного потоков или неравенства их интенсивностей. Управление запасами осуществляется путем воздействия на определенные параметры потоков и запасов в логистических системах. Выделяют 3 группы параметров:

  • Параметры спроса (интенсивность потребления (расхода) за период, функция спроса (потребления) за период и др.)
  • Параметры заказов и поставок (размер заказа, точка заказа, интервал поставки, размер партии поставки и др.)
  • Параметры уровня запасов[5].

Выходной поток (производственный спрос, спрос в торговле) является, как правило, заданным. Поэтому, строго говоря, объектом управления в теории запасов являются параметры входного потока (его интенсивность – размер заказа и интервал между поставками). Уровень запаса служит лишь в качестве контролируемого параметра.

Различают следующие уровни общего запаса:

  1. Максимальный уровень = максимальный уровень текущего запаса + страховой и подготовительный запасы
  2. Минимальный уровень = страховой и подготовительный запасы
  3. Средний уровень = средний уровень текущего запаса + страховой и подготовительный запасы.

Регулировать уровень запаса можно 3 основными способами:

  • Изменение размера заказа (партии поставки)
  • Изменением периода заказа (интервал поставок)
  • Одновременным изменением размера заказа и интервала между поставками[6].

В зависимости от использования одного из этих подходов выделяют 3 принципиальные системы регулирования. Периодический метод (система регулирования с фиксированной периодичностью заказа). В рамках данного метода через равные промежутки времени производится контроль уровня запаса и формируется заказ. Несмотря на простоту периодичного метода, он имеет недостаток. Условием его использования является более или менее равномерное потребление запаса, или относительно постоянный период выполнения заказа.

Релаксационный метод (система регулирования запасов с фиксированным размером заказа). Сущность метода заключается в постоянном контроле за уровнем запаса и его краткосрочном прогнозировании с целью определения момента выдачи заказа. Достоинства системы: фиксированный размер партии поставки, адаптивность к изменениям внешней среды и внутренних параметров логистической системы.

Двухуровневая система регулирования запасов (система «минимум-максимум»). Более распространенной модификацией метода, применяемой за рубежом, является система с 2 фиксированными уровнями запасов без постоянной периодичности заказа и с его плавающим объемом.

Сущность стратегии заключается в определении 2 уровней запаса: максимально допустимого (S) и уровня, определяющего точку заказа (s). Главное достоинство системы – более высокая адаптивность к изменяющимся условиям.

Рассмотренные системы регулирования предполагают относительную неизменность условий протекания логистических процессов, не учитывают затраты на запасы, специфику конкретной производственно-коммерческой структуры. Они являются лишь частью системы управления запасами. Для ее организации необходимо задать нормативные параметры, которые могут быть определены путем экономико-математического моделирования логистических процессов[7].

Разработка и внедрение систем управления состоит из последовательного ряда этапов:

  1. Анализ номенклатуры запасаемых товарно-материальных ресурсов;
  2. Выявление закономерностей движения запасов и прогнозирование его величины к моменту поступления очередной поставки;
  3. Выбор стратегии пополнения запасов и привязка номенклатурных позиций по системам регулирования запасов;
  4. Выбор типа математической модели, критерия оптимальности для каждой категории материальных запасов;
  5. Интеграция систем регулирования запаса с моделями и критериями оптимизации его страховой и текущей частей;
  6. Разработка организационной схемы управления и информационного обеспечения;
  7. Координация с другими подсистемами логистического менеджмента;
  8. Реализация моделей (определение оптимального размера заказа, нормирование страхового запаса) в рамках принятой стратегии управления;
  9. Поддержка и пересмотр параметров и нормативов системы;
  10. Оценка результатов и внедрение системы.

Большое значение имеет качественное выполнение первого этапа, для которого часто используется метод “ABC”. Сущность: группировка номенклатуры по суммарной стоимости материалов. Практика показывает, что в производственных и коммерческих системах на относительно небольшую группу товарно-материальных ресурсов (10-20%) приходится большая часть стоимости материальных запасов и оборота (70-80%). Анализ помогает повысить точность планирования, организации контроля и сократить логистические издержки. Данный метод может быть дополнен XYZ-анализом, который классифицирует ресурсы в зависимости от характера их потребления и точности прогнозирования изменения потребности в них на основании коэффициента вариации. Операция “наложения ” полученных классов друг на друга позволяет определиться с очередностью охвата номенклатурных позиций и с выбором типа системы регулирования и моделей управления запасами для оценки их параметров.

Рассмотрим классическую модель управления запасами, предназначенную для оптимизации текущей части запаса, которая справедлива для производственных и товарных запасов. Множество стратегий закупки ограничены тремя условиями:

  1. экономические (ограничения оборотного капитала, затраты на содержание запасов);
  2. организационные (сбытовые запасы поставщика могут быть ограничены, что не позволит единовременно отгрузить партию ТМЦ)
  3. технологические (транспортные средства ограничены по грузоподъемности, грузовместимости, складское хозяйство имеет ограничение по емкости, допустимые сроки хранения товара)

Возникает проблема выбора стратегии закупки, т.е. обоснование размера заказа и количества закупаемых партий материального ресурса и тем самым нахождение величины его текущего запаса и интервалов между поставками. С позиции логистического подхода требуется выбрать стратегию пополнения запасов, которая обеспечивала бы наименьшие издержки по его формированию и содержанию при удовлетворении производственного или внешнего спроса[8].

1.3 Логистический подход к управлению запасами

Различные логистические операции, такие как складирование, транспортировка, погрузка, разгрузка транспортных средств, упаковка, маркировка, комплектация, внутреннее перемещение, направлены на преобразование материального запаса и осуществляются в рамках логистической инфраструктуры. К числу типичных объектов логистической инфраструктуры относятся производственные предприятия, склады, погрузо-разгрузочные терминалы, магазины розничной торговли, транспортные средства, а также средства информационного обмена. Приступая к формированию инфраструктуры, необходимо определить количество и местоположение каждого типа объектов, нужных для исполнения функций логистики, а также установить, сколько и каких запасов следует держать на каждом объекте и где размещать заказы клиентов на поставку. Эффективность логистики, в частности управление запасами, напрямую зависит от инфраструктуры[9].

Для того чтобы логистика максимально достигала стратегических целей (товарно-материальные запасы нужного качества, поступающие в нужное место, время при наименьших общих издержках), все ее функциональные звенья должны работать на основе интеграции. Успехи в каждом звене имеют смысл только, когда они способствуют повышению эффективности интегрированной системы логистики в целом (критерий оптимальности Парето).

Главная задача интегрированной логистики заключается в координации всех передвижений запасов, придающих им дополнительную стоимость. Наибольший экономический эффект от реализации интегрированного подхода к управлению запасами может быть достигнут при наличии своевременной и достоверной информации о текущем уровне запаса, надежным прогнозом величины спроса, что обеспечивается современными информационными технологиями. Таким образом, основной интегрирующий фактор – информация.

Весь массив логистической информации образует два основных потока: координационный и оперативный. Предназначение первого состоит в интеграции отдельных операций в фирме, без которой сохраняются условия для непроизводительного использования ресурсов и образования избыточных запасов. Информационные потребности второго типа диктуются необходимостью организовать получение, обработку и доставку запасов так, как это требуется для исполнения заказов клиентов и для закупок. Уникальное свойство запасов заключается в том, что они являются неотъемлемой частью планирования/координации и оперативной деятельности. Размещение запасов говорит о том, когда, в каком составе и куда должны поступать запасы. Управление же ими сводится к использованию поступающей информации для строгого выполнения планов логистики[10].

Интеграционные процессы в логистике являются доказательством исследований и открытий М.Портера в области экономической конкуренции. Согласно этому специалисту конкурентоспособность фирмы обеспечивает эффективное использование ресурсов (продуктивность) при создании ценности. Источники конкурентного преимущества находятся как во внутренней среде, в организации ею всего процесса производства – создания товара (ценности), так и во внешней среде. Таким образом, интеграция может быть внутренняя (внутрифирменная) и внешняя (межфирменная).

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

ly. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b"

de, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

us bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general.

On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited:

a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health;

b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others."

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general.

On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited:

a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health;

b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others."

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general.

On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited:

a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health;

b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others."

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general.

On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited:

a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health;

b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general.

On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited:

a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health;

b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others."

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general.

On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited:

a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health;

b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object.

The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between:

a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others."

Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation."

Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient.

It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes.

Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups:

1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes;

2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms;

3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime.

Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime.

The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator.

The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject.

For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime.

The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature.

From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question.

The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code).

The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code.

The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different:

a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age;

b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age.

Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria.

Of the various criteria related to the area of ​​the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime.

On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated:

a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator;

on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior;

b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient;

on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient.

The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits:

a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission;

b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence.

The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code.

The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish:

a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim;

b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim.

On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated:

a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule;

b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code.

It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria.

or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition;

Рассмотрим первый вид. Логистический менеджмент связан со всеми функциональными областями менеджмента в процессах управления закупками материальных ресурсов, производством и сбытом готовой продукции. В процессе взаимодействия с производственным менеджментом решаются три основные группы задач по проектированию внутрифирменной логистической системы:

  • в части ее технологической составляющей (складское и тарное хозяйство, внутрипроизводственный транспорт, подъемно-транспортное оборудование);
  • в рамках внутрипроизводственной логистики (управление запасами материальных ресурсов, промежуточного продукта и готовой продукции в технологическом процессе производства);
  • в сфере внешней логистики (снабжение предприятия материальными ресурсами и сбыт готовой продукции; логистический сервис, доставка, послепродажное обслуживание).

Тесная координация логистического обеспечения и производственной стратегии приводит к следующим результатам:

  • нужный ассортимент запасов в необходимом месте в необходимое время;
  • согласованность в передвижениях внешнего и внутреннего транспорта, гарантирующая своевременную доставку в соответствии с экономическими требованиями;
  • синхронность работ складского хозяйства, упаковки и транспорта позволяет минимизировать расход сырья, снизить запасы в производстве и запасы готовой продукции.

Взаимодействие с маркетинговым менеджментом основано на решении следующих вопросов:

  • требования к упаковке (привлекательный внешний вид упаковки и наличие полной информации о товаре дает возможность выделить его среди товаров-аналогов, также нужно учитывать, что она должна защищать товар от повреждений в процессе транспортировки и грузопереработки);
  • рациональные решения по транспортировке, складированию, грузопереработке и управлению запасами (расширение возможностей маркетингового ценового маневра способствует сокращению логистических издержек);
  • выбор места сбыта готовой продукции (розничные торговцы лучше знают потребности потребителей, однако оптовики более предсказуемые партнеры и эффективнее управляют запасами).

Взаимовлияние логистического и финансового менеджмента проявляется в следующих чертах:

  • эффективность логистических решений оказывает влияние на объем и оборачиваемость оборотного капитала фирмы, поскольку значительную долю оборотных активов составляют денежные средства, вложенные в материальные запасы;
  • в системе логистического менеджмента формируется оперативная информация о перемещении товарно-материальных ценностей и о дебиторской задолженности перед поставщиками и потребителями, которая затем используется в системе бухучета;
  • система бухгалтерского учета способствует выделению, анализу и контролю основных составляющих издержек в логистической системе для принятия эффективных управленческих решений в системе логистического менеджмента[11].

Следует также подчеркнуть далеко не последнюю роль менеджмента качества при управлении процессами на всех стадиях жизненного цикла изделий, начиная от проектирования продукта и заканчивая послепродажным обслуживанием.

Что касается межфирменной интеграции, все большее развитие получает концепция Supply Chain Management. Это системный подход к интегрированному планированию и управлению всем потоком информации, материалов и услуг от поставщиков сырья через предприятия и склады до конечного потребителя. Реализованные проекты по внедрению концепции SCM показали возможность снижения уровня запасов до 60% (в основном за счет страховых запасов)[12]. Как правило, различают два наиболее распространенных типа кооперации:

  • в области закупок (Procurement Supply Networks – логистические сети закупок) – транспортные, складские и дистрибьюторские фирмы;
  • в области производства (Production-Nransport Supply Networks- производственно-логистические сети) – к выше перечисленным добавляются производственные предприятия.

Дальнейшее развитие концепции SCM приводит к созданию новой формы кооперации в виде виртуальных предприятий (ВП).

Глава 2. Управление производственными запасами на промышленных предприятиях

2.1 Подходы к управлению запасами в логистических системах «толкающего» и «тянущего» типа

Материальные потоки и запасы, рассматриваемые в теории логистики, представляют собой часть производственных ресурсов, а именно оборотных средств. Их эффективное использование отражается на финансовых результатах предприятия. Оборотные средства в процессе использования проходят три стадии: денежную, производственную и товарную, что определяет их состав:

  1. Оборотные производственные фонды:
    • Производственные запасы (сырье, покупные полуфабрикаты)
    • Затраты на неоконченную продукцию (незавершенное производство)
    • Расходы будущих периодов
  2. Фонды обращения:
    • Готовая продукция на складе
    • Денежные средства в кассе
    • Дебиторская задолженность[13].

По промышленности удельный вес производственных запасов составляет около 70%, а незавершенное производство – около 25% в стоимости оборотных производственных фондов. Производственные запасы находятся на ранних этапах процесса создания ценности продукции, на которых, по словам Кристофера М, достигается основной прирост ценности. Тем самым наличие больших запасов значительно увеличивает стоимость продукции. Движение материальных ресурсов внутри предприятия начинается со складирования (образования производственных запасов).

В связи с этим, управление материальными потоками и запасами может осуществляться двумя способами. «Толкающая» система (Push Scheduling) – организация движения материальных потоков через производственную систему, при которой материальные ресурсы подаются с предыдущей операции на последующую в соответствии с заранее сформированным жестким графиком поставок.

Эта система с централизованным планированием предполагает, что каждый производственный участок получает конкретные задания на плановый период и отчитывается о его выполнении перед централизованной системой управления предприятием. Результаты своей работы каждое подразделение передает на склад. При таком планировании и участок, и централизованную систему управления интересуют только выполнение сроков и объемов планового задания. При возникновении изменений, например, спроса или поставок планы должны оперативно пересматриваться, что резко повышает трудоемкость плановой работы.

«Тянущая» система (Pull Scheduling) – организация движения материальных потоков, при которой материальные ресурсы подаются на следующую технологическую операцию с предыдущей по мере необходимости. Когда в ходе одной операции заканчивается обработка единицы продукции, посылается сигнал-требование на предыдущую операцию. И предыдущая операция отправляет обрабатываемую единицу дальше только тогда, когда получает на это запрос (принцип Just in time).

Принято выделять пять базовых типов «тянущих» логистических систем: восполнение «супермаркета» (Supermarket Replenishment); лимитированные очереди FIFO (Capped FIFO Lanes); метод «барабан-буфер-веревка» (Drum-Buffer-Rope); лимит незавершенного производства (WIP Cap); метод вычисляемых приоритетов (Priority Sequenced Lanes).

Рассмотрим первый тип. Для каждого изготавливаемого изделия (заказа) рассчитывается «точка восполнения» исходных материалов. Как только суммарное количество материалов в ячейках «супермаркета» и исполняемых заказах опускается ниже этой точки, участку-поставщику посылается новый заказ на их поставку.

В качестве такого заказа может выступать пустой контейнер, карточка «Канбан», световой сигнал, пустая ячейка «супермаркета» и т.п. У участка-потребителя формальное производственное расписание. Единственная точка планирования выпуска готовой продукции – один производственный участок, для которого в «тянущей» логистической системе происходит расчет основного расписания, определяющего работу всего производства в целом.

Работа других участков планируется автоматически. Фактическая средняя величина запасов в ячейках в хорошо спроектированной системе большую часть времени будет составлять 10-15% от их общего потенциального объема, продиктованного планом выпуска готовой продукции. Метод хорошо применим лишь в тех случаях, когда участок-потребитель имеет возможность выбирать из множества различных вариантов полуфабрикатов, расположенных в ячейках.

Когда нет необходимости предоставлять участку-потребителю возможность выбора, лучше использовать очередь FIFO (от англ. First-In-First-Out – «первым пришел, первым вышел», т.е. очередность в порядке поступления).

Единственная точка расчета производственного расписания находится на участке 2, потому что он следует непосредственно за последним «Супермаркетом системы». Между участками 2 и 3, 3 и 4 находится лимитированная очередь FIFO (ограниченное число перемещаемых элементов). В таких системах существует медленное звено, образующее перед собой наибольший объем незавершенного производства.

Его называют ресурсом, ограничивающим производительность всей системы (РОП). В приведенной схеме время выполнения заказа в производстве связано с моментом его запуска на участке 2, предполагается, что все материалы, которые могут потребоваться этому участку, имеются в достаточном количестве в ячейках «Супермаркета». Последнее обстоятельство может оказаться весьма жестким требованием для практической реализации. Данный тип можно использовать в массовых и крупносерийных производствах, где объем выпуска достаточно высок и технологический процесс постоянен для всего семейства выпускаемых продуктов.

Метод «Барабан-Буфер-Веревка» – один из оригинальных вариантов «тянущей» логистической системы. Очень похож на второй тип, однако в нем не ограничиваются запасы в отдельных очередях FIFO. Вместо этого устанавливается общий лимит на запасы, находящиеся между единственной точкой составления производственного расписания и ресурсом, ограничивающим производительность всей системы, РОП.

РОП диктует ритм работы всей производственной системы, график его работы именуется «Барабаном». «Веревка» – это механизм управления ограничением против перегрузки РОП. Он используется для предотвращения появления незавершенного производства в точках системы. Лимит запасов и временной ресурс оборудования (время его эффективного использования) распределяется так, чтобы РОП всегда мог вовремя начать работу. Этим занимается «Буфер». Метод используется в условиях серийных и крупносерийных производств.

В методе лимит незавершенного производства задается некий фиксированный лимит материальных запасов, который распределяется на все процессы системы, а не заканчивается только на РОП.

Он хорошо работает для ритмичных производств со стабильной номенклатурой выпускаемых изделий, отлаженными и неизменяемыми технологическими процессами, что соответствует массовым, крупносерийным и серийным производствам.

Важная особенность рассмотренных выше логистических системах – возможность вычисления времени выпуска (цикла обработки) изделий по формуле Литлла:

Время выпуска = НЗП/Ритм,

где НЗП – объем незавершенного производства, Ритм – это количество изделий, выпускаемых в единицу времени. Однако мелкосерийные и единичные производства никак нельзя назвать ритмическими, в среднем вся станочная системы остается наполовину недогруженной, а ее пропускная способность низкой. Для таких случаев наиболее эффективной «вытягивающей» системой является метод вычисляемых приоритетов. В данной системе не все пустые ячейки в «Супермаркете» пополняются в обязательном порядке. Производственные задания, оказавшись в лимитированной очереди, продвигаются от участка к участку не по правилам FIFO, а по вычисляемым приоритетам. Правила вычисления этих приоритетов назначаются в единственной точке планирования производства

На каждом последующем производственном участке функционирует своя собственная исполнительная производственная система (MES – Manufacturing Execution System). Ее задача – обеспечить своевременную обработку поступающих на вход заданий с учетом их текущего приоритета, оптимизировать внутренний материальный поток и вовремя показать возникающие проблемы. Процедура «вытягивания» осуществляется за счет того, что каждый последующий участок может начинать выполнять только те задания, которые имеют максимально возможный приоритет, что выражается в первоочередном заполнении на уровне «Супермаркета» лишь тех ячеек, что соответствуют приоритетным заданиям. Участок 2, хотя и является единственной точкой планирования, сам вынужден выполнять только эти наиболее приоритетные задания.

Другой вариант передачи заданий от одного участка к другому в данной системе служит так называемое «вычисляемое правило» приоритетов.

Очередь производственных заданий, передаваемых от участка 2 к участку 3, лимитирована. Сами задания могут меняться местами в этой очереди, т.е. изменять последовательность своего поступления в зависимости от их текущего (вычисляемого) приоритета. Фактически это значит, что исполнителю в случае изменения приоритета заданий, предстоит, недоделав текущее задание (превратив его в текущий НЗП), переключиться на выполнение наиболее приоритетного. В такой ситуации при значительном числе заданий и большом числе станков на производственном участке необходимо использовать MES, т.е. проводить локальную оптимизацию материальных потоков, проходящих через участок.

Диспетчер участка, используя MES-систему, может корректировать внутреннее производственное расписание. Чтобы вычислить значение приоритета конкретного задания, выполняемого или ожидающего своей обработки на конкретном участке, проводится предварительное группирование заданий (деталей, входящих в определенный заказ) по ряду признаков:

  1. Номер сборочного чертежа изделия (заказа);
  2. Обозначение детали по чертежу;
  3. Номер заказа;
  4. Трудоемкость обработки детали на оборудовании участка;
  5. Длительность прохождения деталей данного заказа через станочную систему участка (разница между временем начала обработки первой детали и окончанием обработки последней детали данного заказа);
  6. Суммарная трудоемкость операций, выполняемых над деталями, входящими в данный заказ;
  7. Время переналадки оборудования;
  8. Признак обеспеченности обрабатываемых деталей технологической оснасткой;
  9. Процент готовности детали (число завершенных технологических операций);
  10. Число деталей из данного заказа, которые уже прошли обработку на данном участке;
  11. Общее число деталей, входящих в заказ.

Ориентируясь по приведенным признакам и вычисляя специфические показатели, такие как напряженность (отношение 6 показателя к 5), сравнивая значения 7 и 4, анализируя соотношения показателей 9, 10 и 11, локальная MES-система производит расчет текущего приоритета для всех деталей, оказавшихся в одной группе.

Отличительная особенность метода – MES-система позволяет в пределах производственного участка составлять детальные расписания выполняемых работ.

Несмотря на определенную сложность в реализации, метод вычисляемых приоритетов обладает преимуществами:

  • текущие отклонения, возникающие в ходе производства, компенсируются средствами локальных MES на основании изменяющихся приоритетов выполняемых заданий, что повышает пропускную способность системы в целом;
  • имеется возможность оперативно контролировать серьезные сбои (поломка оборудования) на каждом участке и пересчитывать оптимальную последовательность обработки деталей, входящих в различные заказы;
  • наличие на отдельных участках локальных производственных расписаний позволяет проводить оперативный функционально-стоимостной анализ производства.

Впервые данный метод стал применяться на японских предприятиях компании «Тойота» и получил название «Процедуры выравнивания производства» («Хейдзунка»). Этот процесс заполнения «Ящика Хейдзунка» является одним из ключевых элементов «тянущей» системы планирования, когда приоритеты поступающих заданий вычисляются вне выполняющих их производственных участков на фоне действующей системы восполнения «Супермаркета» (Канбан)[14].

Среди толкающих систем наиболее известны стандарт MRP (Materials Requirements Planning) и его модификации (MRP-II, ERP-I,-II). Это система на основе компьютерной базы данных, которая разработана для управления и планирования производственных запасов зависимого спроса (т.е. сырьевых материалов, запчастей и сборочных узлов). Она используется практически везде – начиная с предприятий, работающих по специальным заказам, и заканчивая производством на сборочных линиях. Существуют две возможности сочетания принципа JIT с системой планирования и управления на основе MRP – простая комбинация и гибридная производственная система.

На первом рисунке, MRP используется для основного плана производства, а компьютерный контроль производства ужесточен JIT- системой. Вверху второго рисунка MRP-система со стандартными входными потоками (прогнозируемое потребление, состояние запасов и списки материалов) генерирует план. Внизу рисунка – основные элементы JIT- системы, контролирующей сроки поставки материалов поставщиками, сроки изготовления комплектующих и сроки поставки готовой продукции. Средняя часть рисунка – система «канбан», которая представляет собой интерфейс, соединяющий MRP- и JIT-системы[15].

2.2 Особенности автомобильной и электронной промышленности с позиций управления производственными запасами

материальный запас логистический складской

Будучи ориентированными на спрос конечных потребителей, компании-лидеры автомобильной отрасли используют все более сложные методы управления производственными запасами. Перспективным методом выступает межфирменная кооперация в области управления производственными запасами. Эта форма управления, при которой предприятия участвуют путем принятия согласованных решений и применения их на практике с целью взаимовыгодного сотрудничества. Они делятся на предприятия первого уровня (производители автомобилей), второго уровня (производители комплектующих и агрегатов для автомобилей), третьего уровня (производители продукции для предприятий второго уровня). Кооперация осуществляется тремя способами: между предприятиями 1-го и 2-го уровней, между предприятиями 2-го и 3-го уровней, либо между тремя одновременно.

На управление производственными запасами влияют такие специфические особенности автомобилестроительной отрасли, как наличие единого годового производственного плана, который пересматривается ежеквартально и отражается на всей цепи поставок; наличие «монопоставщиков», работающих в рамках одной отрасли и поставляющих продукцию только на один конвейер.

Реализация межфирменной кооперации возможна с помощью логистической концепции ECR – Efficient Consumer Response – метода эффективного взаимодействия с потребителем. Путем внедрения концепции обеспечивается длительное и надежное материально-техническое снабжение. Межфирменная кооперация предусматривает внедрение совокупности мероприятий.

1. Информационный обмен. Цель – выявление и мониторинг суммарного уровня запаса в цепи поставок, его снижения и оптимизации. Исследование проблем и состояние запасов включает:

  • Применение электронного обмена данными – EDI, что ускоряет обмен информацией и упрощает документооборот
  • Совместное участие в планировании запасов и остатков на складах с помощью слияния или интеграции блоков ERP-систем предприятий. Повышается точность и горизонт планирования запасов
  • Отслеживание динамических инженерных изменений, что позволяет избежать возникновения неликвидов
  • Совместное принятие решений об уровнях производственных запасов как общих, так и страховых

2. Контрактные средства, предусматривающие изменения условий договорных отношений между предприятиями:

  • Изменение условий поставок, упаковочных спецификаций
  • Введение фиксированного уровня страхового запаса, обусловленного только производственными или иными непреодолимыми ограничениями
  • Целостный пересмотр системы поставок. Например, переход к системе «точно-в-срок» (JIT) или «точно-в-последовательности» (JIS), что подразумевает обязательное соблюдение всех стандартов качества

3. Хеджирование с целью:

  • Страхование от повышения цен или дефицита
  • Поддержание интенсивности производства поставщика в условиях нестабильного спроса

4. Риск – менеджмент: обоюдное управление рисками при максимально высоком уровне контроля объема производственных запасов

В результате кооперирования предприятия получают экономический эффект:

  • Снижения издержек на содержание запасов;
  • Повышение оборачиваемости запасов и, как следствие, финансовых ресурсов;
  • Снижение уровня производственных запасов.

В отдельных случаях важен и внеэкономический эффект от кооперации:

  • Повышение гибкости и надежности цепи поставок;
  • Снижение и полное отсутствие «борьбы» между предприятиями за запас;
  • Эффективный мониторинг как уровней производственных запасов, так и всей цепи поставок.

При организации межфирменной кооперации целесообразно использовать услуги специализированных фирм в порядке аутсорсинга. Так, завод в г. Санкт-Петербург компании General Motors передал французской компании Gefco (4 PL-провайдер) на аутсорсинг большую часть логистических операций таких, как таможенное оформление, хранение, переупаковка и планирование поставок комплектующих изделий на конвейер. В результате поставщики стали работать с аутсорсинг-компанией. Под управлением сторонней компании производственными запасами компании GM снизились на 40%, а общие производственные запасы в цепи снизились на 65%. Компании GM также удалось снизить цены на закупаемые материалы в среднем на 6% [16].

В международной практике концепция SCM для производственно-логистических сетей получила распространение в виде субконтрактинга – вида производственной кооперации, основанного на принципах аутсорсинга работ или процессов. Субконтрактинг получил наибольшее распространение в машиностроении, в таких секторах, как автомобилестроение, радиоэлектронная и электротехническая промышленность.

Одно промышленное предприятие (контрактор) размещает на другом предприятии (субконтракторе) заказ на разработку или изготовление некоторой продукции, или на выполнение технологических процессов в соответствии с требованиями заказчика. Главное предприятие получает от субконтракторов до 75-80% комплектующих, имея возможность концентрировать усилия на дизайне, технологиях обработки и сборки, на создании новых изделий и других компонентов, а также избавиться от непроизводительных издержек на содержание недозагруженных мощностей. В свою очередь, субконтракторы (как правило, малые и средние предприятия) могут сосредоточиться на выпуске строго определенной номенклатуры продукции, получать стабильные заказы и доход. Узкая специализация при постоянной загрузке обеспечивает им интенсивное использование, быструю амортизацию и обновляемость оборудования.

Обычно крупное автомобилестроительное предприятие имеет 2-2,5 тысячи субконтракторов. Такие гиганты американского автомобилестроения, как Chrysler, Ford и General Motors, изготавливают самостоятельно чуть больше 1/3 комплектующих. Остальные комплектующие поставляются в рамках договоров подряда. В Японии сложилась многоуровневая система субконтрактации: контрактор передает заказ нескольким субконтракторам (первый уровень), с которыми устанавливают прямые долгосрочные отношения. Они, в свою очередь, сотрудничают с субконтракторами более низкого уровня. Крупное японское автомобилестроительное предприятие имеет в среднем 300-400 субконтракторов. Такие гиганты японского автомобилестроения, как Nissan и Toyota, самостоятельно производят чуть больше 1/4 используемых комплектующих, получая остальные по субконтрактным заказам. Критериями отбора субконтаркторов служат, в первую очередь качество, техническая совместимость изделий, надежность партнеров. Японская модель кооперации позволяет сформировать отраслевые и межотраслевые кластеры, что является ее несомненным преимуществом перед американской моделью[17].

В структуре потребления полупроводниковых приборов продолжают лидировать вычислительная техника, средства связи и бытовая электроника.

Электронная промышленность традиционно сталкивается с дисбалансом спроса и предложения. Во время цикла роста производителям приходится приспосабливаться к ситуации, несмотря на усилия по приведению цепи поставок в новую, оптимальную форму. Для электронной промышленности важен вопрос о том, будет ли расти деловая активность, и, соответственно, возрастут ли закупки компьютеров и прочего IT-оборудования. Ведущие электронные корпорации вынуждены тщательно изучать «причуды» потребителей. Это значит, что прогнозировать развитие отрасли становится труднее, а точность таких прогнозов неуклонно снижается.

В электронной промышленности продолжается процесс консолидации не только изготовителей (слияния), но и «консолидация» конечных изделий (т. е. сокращение числа вариантов каждого из типов изделий, выпускаемых конечных систем). Таким образом, при слиянии новообразовавшаяся компания старается избавиться от дублирования продукции. Мировые лидеры производства электроники отказались от собственного производства, перейдя на аутсорсинг. Fabless company – компания, которая специализируется только на разработке и продаже микроэлектроники, но не имеет собственных производственных мощностей. Чтобы изготовить свою продукцию, она передает технологию и размещает заказ на специализированном производстве других компаний, которые часто называют кремниевыми заводами[18].

В настоящее время все радиотехнические и электронные изделия, персональный компьютер или сотовый телефон, изготавливаются на печатных платах и комплектуются электронными компонентами SMD (устройствами для поверхностного монтажа – резисторами, конденсаторами, диодами, транзисторами). В настоящее время более 50% электронных компонентов, применяемых в устройствах промышленной и бытовой электроники, являются приборами SMD. Экспертные оценки говорят, что их доля в ближайшие пять лет составит 75–80%. Для монтажа современных SMD компонентов, нужно очень дорогостоящее и точное оборудование, а также квалифицированный персонал. Не каждое предприятие, специализирующееся на производстве электроники или научный институт, может позволить себе, иметь такие дорогостоящие производственные мощности. Многие западные компании размещали свои производственные мощности в государствах Юго-Восточной Азии еще в 80-е годы с целью снизить издержки. Экономия на издержках (в основном за счет сборочных производств) позволила западным компаниям сконцентрироваться на потребителях и продвижении своей продукции.

Это послужило бурному росту контрактного производства электроники (EMS – Electronics Manufacturing Services). Это такой вид аутсорсинга, при котором за все этапы изготовления изделия: от разработки до серийного производства изделия занимается один подрядчик. Основными этапами являются:

– проектирование изделия;

– поставка электронных компонентов;

– автоматический и ручной монтаж, печатных плат;

– конечная сборка и испытания изделия.

Это приемлемо, как для производства опытных образцов, и единичных изделий, так и для выпуска массового продукта. До 70% роста сектора обеспечивают контрактные производства в Китае. Подрядчик может выступать в двух разных ролях:

1.OEM (англ. original equipment manufacturer – производитель оригинального оборудования). В этом случае он получает от заказчика полный пакет документации, необходимой для выпуска продукции с заданными характеристиками и дизайном.

2. ODM (англ. original design manufacturer – разработчик оригинального проекта). При таких отношениях он ведет проект целиком – начиная от конструкторских и дизайнерских разработок и заканчивая собственно производством. Пример из практики компании Asus. Сначала она размещала заказы на сборку ноутбуков из готовых компонентов у известных тайваньских производителей. Затем, по мере развития отношений, один из подрядчиков предложил взять на себя не только сборку, но также конструкторские работы и дизайн. Компания согласилась и теперь может полностью сконцентрироваться на поддержке бренда и развитии системы маркетинговых коммуникаций.

Для японских изготовителей электроники всегда больным вопросом был выбор между внутренним производством и аутсорсингом. Фирмы, подобные Apple, RIM и Nintendo, не производящие собственные аппаратные средства, получают намного более высокие доходы. Для японских фирм, традиционно полагающихся на собственное производство, политика аутсорсинга затруднительна. Во избежание крупных затрат на поддержку и развитие производственной базы, им приходится подстраиваться под тенденцию. На уровне полупроводниковых приборов консолидация уже идет. Так, при формировании компании Renesas Technology были объединены полупроводниковые отделения корпораций Hitachi и Mitsubishi. Помимо крупных сделок по слиянию/поглощению японских изготовителей электронных систем начинается реализация «сетевой модели», где каждый партнер сосредоточен на самом выигрышном для него продукте или базовой технологии[19].

2.3 Практика применения логистических концепций в отечественной промышленности и их влияние на запасоемкость производства

Мировым лидером по разработке программного обеспечения для систем планирования ресурсов предприятия (ERP) является немецкая компания SAP AG. Отраслевое решение для автомобильной промышленности (SAP for Automotive) – это портфель современных приложений, разработанных с учетом конкретных стандартов, процессов и задач, специфичных для автомобильной отрасли, включающей производителей автомобилей (OEM-производителей), поставщиков комплектующих, а также компании, осуществляющие дистрибуцию, продажу и обслуживание. Оно позволяет автомобильным компаниям обеспечить контроль процессов в рамках всей отраслевой цепочки создания стоимости.

Сегодня решение SAP используют Daimler Chrysler, Porsche, Fiat, Toyota, Iveco, Caterpillar, Volvo, Volkswagen Group, BMW, General Motors и ряд других компаний.

Рассмотрим решение SAP для сборочного производства (ОЕМ-производителей).

Использование современных решений и технологий делает возможным связать организационно и технологически процессы ОЕМ-производителя:

  • с поставщиками компонентов для обеспечения своевременных поставок на конвейер;
  • с импортерами, дистрибьюторами и дилерами, управляя заказами автомобилей и обслуживанием гарантийных обязательств.

Совместное планирование сбыта и производства – основа для создания гибкой логистической цепочки. Благодаря этим возможностям производители совместно с партнерами по логистической цепочке могут создавать совместные планы, которые в свою очередь позволяют организовывать собственную деятельность всем партнерам.

Решение SAP обеспечивает поставку материалов на сборочную линию в режиме «точно в срок», а также поддерживает поток материалов и их своевременное наличие на сборочной линии по методу «Kанбан» или с помощью pull-листа.

ОАО «КАМАЗ» – лидер российского рынка, занимает 11 место среди крупнейших мировых производителей тяжёлых грузовиков. ОАО «КАМАЗ» признано лауреатом национальной премии «Компания года» 2010 года в отрасли «Автомобилестроение». Компания широко интегрирована в международный автомобильный бизнес. Создано 4 совместных предприятия с участием ведущих мировых производителей автокомпонентов: «ЦФ КАМА» (коробки передач), «КАММИНЗ КАМА» (двигатели), «КНОРР-БРЕМЗЕ КАМА» (тормозные системы) и «Федерал Могул Набережные Челны» (детали цилиндропоршневой группы).

Для повышения конкурентоспособности группа «КАМАЗ» в 2000-х годах практически полностью перешла на позаказный выпуск автомобилей. Сегодня в среднем выпускается до десяти автомобилей одной модели в месяц. При такой высокой вариативности используемая информационная модель не могла обеспечить необходимый уровень точности и управляемости процессов планирования и производственного учета. Это негативно отражалось на эффективности производства: складские запасы росли, увеличивались объемы незавершенного производства, учащались случаи остановки конвейеров. В 2007 году в группе «КАМАЗ» было принято решение модернизировать процессы управления производством. В 2008 году вышел приказ генерального директора ОАО «КАМАЗ» о начале работ по проекту «Внедрение информационной системы календарного управления производством группы организаций ОАО «КАМАЗ». В качестве основной системы был выбран программный продукт SAP for Automotive.

К настоящему моменту выполнены работы по внедрению системы SAP для управления производством автосборочного завода – основного производственного предприятия группы, ритмичность работы которого – обязательное условие эффективной работы всей группы «КАМАЗ». Система автоматизирует следующие процессы:

  • формирование однозначного состава будущего автомобиля;
  • формирование оптимальной последовательности закладки автомобиля на конвейерах с учетом ограничений;
  • формирование календарного производственного плана для 25 цехов механосборочного производства;
  • оперативное обеспечение материалами, комплектующими рабочих мест из хранилищ и складов;
  • оперативный учет движения материалов на более чем 80 складах;
  • оперативный учет выполнения производственного плана, списания материалов и комплектующих в цехах, на контрольных точках конвейеров;
  • учет и анализ дефектов и брака.

В ходе проекта развития производственной системы ОАО «КАМАЗ» были изменены существующие бизнес-процессы под лучшие мировые практики:

  • Стратегическое партнерство с Daimler, взаимодействие с другими производителями;
  • «Бережливое производство» (JIS – точно в последовательности, JIT -точно вовремя).

Сокращение недостач товарно-материальных ценностей составило 25%, сокращение брака на основном производстве автосборочного завода – 10%. Группа оптимизировала производственные затраты, исключила случаи простоев, при 20-дневном рабочем месяце три рабочих дня были высвобождены. Новая система управления производством позволила получать более объективные оценки затрат на выпускаемые комплектации автомобилей.

«Камаз-Дизель» (дочернее предприятие ОАО «КАМАЗ», отвечающее за выпуск коробок передач и двигателей) в 1998 году внедрил систему Baan IV, которая до сих пор функционирует на предприятии. С начала 2008 г. на «Камаз-Металлургия» внедряется SAP. На других предприятиях группы КАМАЗ развернуты различные ERP-системы.

Автомобильный завод «Урал» входит в состав «Группы ГАЗ» и является основным активом в структуре дивизиона «Грузовые автомобили». В 1999 году было принято решение о необходимости заменить существовавшие на заводе элементы кусочной автоматизации. На заводе внедрены передовые технологии:

1) Новая производственная система на принципах «бережливого производства». На сборочных линиях внедрена система поставки комплектующих на конвейер по карточкам («Канбан»), что обеспечивает минимальный запас комплектующих. Стандартизированы складские остатки, проведена работа по уменьшению объемов поставок комплектующих на завод, по ряду изделий организована прямая поставка поставщиком на конвейер, без промежуточного хранения на складе.

2) С 2010 года принята в эксплуатацию система «Baan-VI» (Infor ERP LN 6), заменившая ранее функционировавшую ERP-систему «Baan-IV». В рамках первой системы были реализованы процессы выдачи заданий мастерам, фиксация их исполнения и передача изделия по маршруту изготовления. Данная функциональность позволила получить достаточно объективные данные об остатках материалов, покупных изделий, готовых деталей и сборочных единиц (ДСЕ) на каждом переделе. Эти данные актуальны не только на конец месяца, а практически ежедневно (в большинстве цехов и на складах регистрация перемещений идет в режиме «день в день»). В качестве очевидных плюсов от внедрения системы уже полученных заводом следует выделить: единое хранилище нормативно-справочной информации (все службы завода и расчеты используют единые данные), наличие оперативных, достоверных данных о материальных запасах на складах в натуральном и денежном выражении. В 2004 г. достигнуты следующие показатели: снижение запасов товарно-материальных ценностей (ТМЦ) – 65.000 тысяч руб.; снижение текущих остатков незавершенного производства – 60 000 тысяч руб.[20].

ОАО «SOLLERS Набережные Челны» входит в состав российской автомобилестроительной компании Sollers и осуществляет лицензионную сборку автомобилей мировых марок Fiat, SsangYong, Ford, Isuzu, Mazda. На предприятии используются три способа регулирования потока деталей между складом и линией.

Внедрена система «Канбан» и продолжает совершенствоваться. Применяется несколько ее видов на производстве. Во-первых, это использование специальной тары в случаях, когда тара поставщиков, не может быть использована для доставки их на линию. В основном это касается объемных деталей сложной формы. Такая тара специально проектируется с учетом габаритов, веса и прочих характеристик тех деталей, которые требуется доставлять на линию, их необходимого минимального запаса, который должен быть обеспечен на линии. Также используется универсальная тара (KLT) в виде пластиковых коробок трех видов, отличающихся друг от друга по размеру и цвету (красный, синий, желтый). Цвет коробки сигнализирует о том, насколько срочной является доставка: красный – сигнал о том, что детали заканчиваются, спокойных цветов могут быть коробки, содержащие детали, с «пополнением» которыми можно не торопиться. КLT и спецтара объединяют в себе функции собственно упаковки и канбан-карточки, поскольку служат еще и для передачи информации, регулирующей поток материалов. Третий вид упаковки – тара поставщика. Она используется в случае, если позволяет доставить комплектующие на линию. В комбинации с такой упаковкой применяются «классические» канбан-карточки.

Второй способ регулирования потока деталей – доставка деталей в заданной последовательности (JIS). Способ используется, когда детали крупногабаритные и держать на линии их запас, достаточный для часа или двух работы, невозможно. Например, существует несколько типов двигателей, и нельзя привезти на линию по 10 штук каждого типа.

Третий способ доставки деталей на линию – киттинг. Кит (от англ. kit -комплект, набор) – это набор деталей, необходимых для конкретного автомобиля. Киттинг похож на второй способ, т.к детали для машины определенной комплектации привозят в порядке, в котором их нужно устанавливать. Только в данном случае последовательность выстраивается не из единичных деталей, а из наборов, каждый из которых будет установлен на определенный автомобиль. Он внедрен, в частности, на участке подборки ходовой части автомобиля: набор состоит из двигателя, коробки передач и раздаточной коробки. Это объемные детали, и их комплект, необходимый для одной машины, занимает всю тележку.

На сегодняшний день автоматизированная система управления SOLLERS-Набережные Челны на базе решений SAP находится в промышленной эксплуатации[21].

ЗАО «Спецэлектронкомплект» обеспечивает поставку электронных компонентов предприятиям российского ВПК, аэрокосмической и атомной промышленности, РЖД. Входит в стратегическое ядро холдинга «Российская электроника». Компания производит электро- и радиоэлементов, электровакуумных приборов, электрических конденсаторов, резисторов, печатных схем (плат), электровакуумных приборов, полупроводниковых элементов, приборов, частей электровакуумных приборов и прочие элементы. Руководством компании была поставлена задача: в сжатые сроки выбрать готовую систему, которая отвечала бы предъявляемым требованиям, а именно возможность быстрого внедрения, отсутствие необходимости самостоятельных настроек и наличие типовой конфигурации, которая подойдет под все ключевые бизнес-процессы. Система «Бизнес Про» была выбрана благодаря статистике успешных внедрений на предприятиях с аналогичным видом деятельности. Благодаря этому внедрение системы было осуществлено в рекордно короткий срок – всего 4 дня.

С помощью ERP-системы компания получила единую информационную среду, интегрирующую все бизнес-процессы, оптимизировала процесс товародвижения, основываясь на принципе работы с покупателями под заказ (торговля электронными компонентами). Благодаря системе компания получила возможность отслеживать все действия по обработке заказа, т.е. обеспечивать максимальную эффективность всего процесса – от первого контакта до ежедневного контроля за выполнением заказа.

Челябинский радиозавод «Полет» – промышленное предприятие по выпуску радиотехнических средств для нужд военной и гражданской авиации. Основная продукция Челябинского радиозавода: радиолокация, радионавигация, мобильные системы, авиационная радиосвязь. Также использует информационную систему Baan – IV.

Применение ERP систем на промышленных предприятиях России разнообразно.

Заключение

Логистику можно рассматривать как реальный хозяйственный процесс производства продукции или оказания услуг, состав которого: закупка- производство - распределение. Предметом изучения логистики являются не сами материальные ресурсы как таковые, а их движение в пространстве и во времени. Под движением при этом понимается непрерывное изменение материальных ресурсов по количеству, качеству, месту нахождения. Можно сказать, что запас – это форма существования материального потока. Главная проблема, возникающая в любой логистической системе в отношении запасов, - их оптимизация, т.е. поддержание оптимального уровня запасов для каждой номенклатурной позиции. Исходя из принципов и подходов логистики, это означает поддержание наиболее низкого уровня, соответствующего требованием логистической системы и в первую очередь производства. Основной задачей логистики по управлению запасами является установление их структуры, величины и динамики, а также степени обеспеченности ими потребностей логистической системы. В результате анализа состояния запасов, влияния внешних и внутренних факторов прогнозируются соответствующие тенденции, выявляются сверхнормативные и излишние материальные запасы, имеющиеся на предприятии.

Учитывая потенциальное значение запасов, исследование логистической системы должно включить проблему управления запасами, которая конкретизируется в следующих вопросах:

1. Какой уровень запасов необходимо иметь на каждом предприятии для обеспечения требуемого уровня обслуживания потребителя?

2. В чем состоит компромисс между уровнем обслуживания потребителя и уровнем запасов в системе логистики?

3. Какие объемы запасов должны быть созданы на каждой стадии логистического производственного процесса?

4. Должны ли товары отгружаться непосредственно с предприятия?

5. Каково значение компромисса между выбранным способом транспортировки и запасами?

6. Каковы общие уровни запасов на данном предприятии, связанные со специфическим уровнем обслуживания?

7. Как изменяются затраты на содержание запасов в зависимости от изменения числа складов?

8. Как и где следует размещать страховые запасы?

Для дислоцирования запасов требуются складские сооружения, соответствующее оборудование, подъемно транспортная техника, наличие подъездных путей и т.д., затрачивается труд работников. Поэтому, как указывалось выше, главной задачей управления запасами является их оптимизация, которая заключается в ритмичном обеспечении производства и вспомогательных функций по всем количественным и качественным параметрам при минимальном отвлечении материальных ресурсов в запасы.

Функциональный комплекс оптимизации запасов включает:

· разработку нормативных параметров всех видов запасов на всех стадиях функционирования логистической системы;

· создание и развитие складской и коммуникационной инфраструктуры для дислоцирования запасов и подготовки материальных ресурсов к производственному потреблению;

· решение проблемы оптимальной структуры запасов в ассортиментном и качественном разрезе;

· разработку и постоянное совершенствование рациональной схемы дислокации запасов, т.е. определение и поддержание оптимального соотношения между частями совокупного запаса, находящегося у поставщиков (производителей, посредников), в пути и в структурных подразделениях логистической системы;

· оперативный контроль за состоянием запасов во всех звеньях логистической цепи;

· создание гибкой системы маневрирования материальными ресурсами.

На определение общих и конкретизированных показателей запасов влияет множество факторов, и в первую очередь:

· специфические условия производства;

· наличие определенных видов, марок и типов технических средств и технологического оборудования;

· сущность заказа на производство готовой продукции (индивидуальный, серийный, массовый);

· затраты времени и средств на переналадку производственного оборудования;

· длительность производственного цикла;

· обеспечение рабочей силой и др.

Широкое распространение в логистике по данному комплексу вопросов получила “теория запасов”. Теория запасов представляет собой раздел исследования операций, в котором изучаются закономерности образования и расходования запасов, а также вырабатываются рекомендации по оптимальному управлению ими. В логистической системе при закупке продукции возникает задача минимизации суммарной комбинации различных элементов затрат, связанных с продвижением и хранением продукции. Поэтому в данном пособии рассматриваются назначение и типы запасов, системы управления запасами, вопросы выбора размера партии, закупаемой или производимой продукции, обеспечение минимизации издержек, связанных с закупкой продукции.

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